Counter

/ˌsiː-tiː-ˈɑːr/

n. “Turning blocks into streams, one counter at a time.”

CTR, or Counter Mode, is a mode of operation for block ciphers that transforms a block cipher into a stream cipher. Instead of encrypting plaintext blocks directly, CTR generates a key stream by encrypting successive values of a counter, then XORs this key stream with the plaintext to produce ciphertext. This approach allows parallel processing of blocks, dramatically improving performance compared to modes like CBC, which require sequential encryption.

In CTR mode, the counter is typically a combination of a nonce (number used once) and a sequential block index. Each plaintext block is XORed with the encryption of the corresponding counter value, ensuring that identical plaintext blocks yield unique ciphertext as long as the nonce is never reused. This is why proper nonce management is critical: reusing a counter with the same key undermines security.

CTR is widely used in modern cryptography, often paired with modes like GCM to provide authenticated encryption. Its parallelizability makes it ideal for high-speed network encryption, disk encryption, and secure storage systems. For example, in TLS using AES-CTR, multiple blocks of HTTP requests can be encrypted simultaneously, increasing throughput while maintaining confidentiality.

Example usage: Suppose you are encrypting a 1 GB file using AES-CTR. Each block of plaintext is XORed with the AES encryption of a counter value. The process can run on multiple CPU cores at once because each counter value is independent, allowing the entire file to be processed in parallel. Upon decryption, the same counter values are used to regenerate the key stream, restoring the original plaintext.

Security considerations for CTR include ensuring unique counter values for each encryption session. Mismanagement of counters can lead to vulnerabilities such as keystream reuse, potentially exposing plaintext through simple XOR operations. Understanding CTR also helps in grasping the design of other modes like GCM and the importance of cryptographic primitives like AES.

CTR illustrates how block ciphers can be adapted into flexible, high-performance encryption schemes. By decoupling block encryption from sequential plaintext, it paves the way for modern authenticated encryption protocols, bridging the gap between theoretical cryptography and practical, efficient security.

/ˌdʒiː-siː-ˈɛm/

n. “Authenticated encryption with speed and style.”

GCM, or Galois/Counter Mode, is a modern mode of operation for block ciphers that provides both confidentiality and data integrity. Unlike traditional encryption modes such as CBC, which only encrypts data, GCM combines encryption with authentication, ensuring that any tampering with the ciphertext can be detected during decryption.

At its core, GCM uses a counter mode (CTR) for encryption, which turns a block cipher into a stream cipher. Each block of plaintext is XORed with a unique counter-based key stream, allowing parallel processing for high performance. The “Galois” part comes from a mathematical multiplication over a finite field used to compute an authentication tag, sometimes called a Message Authentication Code (MAC), which validates that the data hasn’t been altered.

This combination makes GCM especially popular in network security protocols such as TLS 1.2 and above, IPsec, and modern disk encryption systems. Its ability to provide authenticated encryption prevents attacks that plagued older modes like CBC, including the infamous BEAST attack.

Example usage: When a client connects to a secure website using TLS with AES-GCM, the plaintext HTTP requests are encrypted using AES in counter mode, while the server verifies the accompanying authentication tag. If even a single bit of the ciphertext or associated data is modified in transit, the authentication check fails, protecting against tampering or forgery.

Benefits of GCM include parallelizable encryption for performance, integrated authentication to ensure integrity, and avoidance of padding-related issues common in CBC mode. It demonstrates the evolution of cryptographic practice: fast, secure, and resistant to attacks without relying solely on secrecy.

While GCM is robust, proper implementation is critical. Reusing the same initialization vector (IV) with the same key can catastrophically compromise security. This requirement links to the broader cryptographic principles found in SHA256, HMAC, and other authenticated primitives, showing how encryption and authentication interplay to build secure systems.